sábado, 25 de março de 2017

Vladimir Solovyev Critique of Absolute Dualism (Jonathan Sutton)

In the field of religious perception and of accounts of Divine-human relations Solovyov mounted a sustained attack upon what he regarded as 'absolute dualism'. His targets were Islam and Zoroastrianism, Platonism and the major faiths of the Indian spiritual Tradition, namely Buddhism and Hinduism.

HIS CRITIQUE OF ABSOLUTE DUALISM

1. Solovyov specifically objected to the Islamic interpretation of the world order (and to the similarly dualistic Zoroastrian viewpoint) on the grounds that these conceived of God's transcendence exclusively, stressing the separation between God and His creatures. Although reflection upon the transcendent aspect of God may be very salutary for the believer's spiritual life (instilling in him a due sense of awe and veneration), if the believer has·very little hope of redemption from his 'creaturely' condition, then the motivation to adhere to spiritual precepts is much diminished. Solovyov held that, as it lacked the doctrine of 'Godmanhood' (bogochelovechestvo), Islam could not offer believers in that religion such assurances of salvation as Christianity can offer.15 Because of the Incarnation of the God-man, Jesus Christ, among men, Christianity is not obliged to assert a rigid and extreme separation of the sacred and the mundane, nor of the Divine Creator and creaturely beings.

2. While Solovyov appreciated many aspects of Platonic thought, in the final analysis he criticised Plato's idealist philosophy on account of a too rigid separation of the ideal and the phenomenal spheres.

3. In Solovyov's view, the major spiritual teachings originating in India, Buddhism and Hinduism, served men well in that they expressed in very clear and powerful terms the essentially unsatisfying quality of natural, earthly existence. 16 They stressed man's susceptibility to disease, sorrow, death, the pain of being parted from pleasurable but transient experiences, and so forth. To this extent, argues Solovyov, they showed a penetrating understanding of the human condition, and the teachers of the various Indian faiths were correct in their premise that awareness of the undesirability of earthly existence could give a powerful impetus to men to make progress in the spiritual life. It is Solovyov' s thesis that this was as far as the Indians' positive, beneficial insights went. He conceded that they diagnosed men's ills and that they offered a variety of ascetic or other disciplines to assist men in overcoming suffering. However, Solovyov judged that the 'remedies' offered by the Indian spiritual philosophies, and the disciplines founded on them, yielded only pantheistic contemplation, or concentration on the Void or on 'non-being', 17 and that ultimately they entailed an irresponsible and non-compassionate, selfish renunciation of one's responsibilities towards 'the world'. This was, in his view, another form of absolute dualism, an undue separation of the spheres of 'the spiritual' and 'the secular'. As Solovyov perceived the matter, men who took up these philosophies were electing to pursue their own personal salvation and giving up the opportunity to transform and qualitatively improve secular society.

terça-feira, 21 de março de 2017

Orthodox and Roman Catholic Mysticism (N. Berdyaev)

There is an official ecclesiastical mysticism of the East and the West, an Orthodox mysticism and a Catholic mysticism. And the difference between the paths taken in the world by the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic West can be explained by that which distinguishes them on the level of the mystical experience. There is a profound difference in the original bond in relation to God and Christ. For the Catholic West, Christ is an object, he is outside the human soul, as an instrument of inspiration and object of love and exaltation. That is why Catholic experience draws man up to God. The Catholic soul is Gothic. The cold unite in it with passion. The concrete, evangelical image of the Christ, the Passion of Christ are intimately close to the Catholic soul. The Catholic soul is passionately in love with Christ; Trembling with love for him, they receives stigmata on their own body. The Catholic mystic is penetrated with sensuality, languishes and dispel, for there is no other path than that to where his sensitive imagination takes him. The anthropological current reaches here its highest tension. The Catholic soul cries out: "Jesus, my Jesus, my neighbor, my beloved." The soul rushes toward him, but God does not enter into it: for this reason the Catholic soul is cold, as it is cold also in his temple. God does not descend to this or that. Instead, the soul, passionately, voluptuously, ascends in its search, tends toward its object and towards the target of its love. The Catholic mystique is romantic and full of romantic languor. It is a hungry mystique, which ignores satiety; he does not know marriage but only voluptuously. Now, this conception of God as an object, as the term of an aspiration, is precisely that which creates the external dynamism of Catholics. The Catholic experience created a culture marked strongly by that burning desire of God. Catholic energy spread through all the paths of history, and this was because, instead of apprehending God in the human heart, it was this human heart that threw itself towards God and sought it through the paths of a wordly dynamic. Catholic experience was born of spiritual hunger and from the unsatisfied religious passion, beauty.



For the Orthodox East, Christ is a subject, he is immanent to the human soul; The soul apprehends the Christ within itself, in the depth of the heart. The loving desire of Christ and his waiting are, therefore, impossible in the orthodox mysticism. He does not tend to God but dissolves in Him. The orthodox temple, like the soul, is the opposite of the Gothic: there is neither cold nor passion in it. In orthodoxy, there is a warm temperature, until it is warm. The evangelical and concrete image of the Christ does not appear there so close. Orthodoxy regards sensuality as a "sortilege" and rejects the imagination as a chimerical way. No Orthodox shouts, "My Jesus, my neighbor, my beloved." But in the temple and in the orthodox soul, the Christ penetrates and warm them. And there is no languish passion there. Orthodoxy is not romantic, but realistic and sober. Temperance is the mystical path of orthodoxy. Orthodoxy is satiated, filled spiritually, and its experience is a marriage and not a love relationship. God understood as subject, conceived in the depth of the human heart, the absosolutely inner spirituality of that bond does not create an outward dynamism, it is turned exclusively towards an inner union. This experience of orthodox mysticism is therefore not welcoming to culture, it does not create beauty. It seems to be mute to the outside world. The orthodox energy will not be scattered, then, by the historical paths, it will not create in the external. This difference of paths taken by religious experience has a deep secret, and both paths are authentically Christian.


There is an official orthodox mysticism and an official catholic mysticism, but the very nature of mysticism is supra-confessional. The mystique lies at a deeper level than the confessional ecclesiastical dispersions and antinomies. In any case, the different types of mystical experience can also engender different ecclesiastical types. The deepening the mysticism it can renew the life of the Church, combat its obvious necrosis. The living roots of ecclesiastical life are in mysticism. The effective priesthood remains on the surface, on the periphery; the Church on the physical plane of history is always peripheric. And the mystics have not only to leave this peripheral region to revive the religious life but to explore everything that involves the mysticism [...]. For there is a mystical experience that tends to return to nothingness and the initial repose, within the divinity, which renounces movement, the creative dynamism, that is, the very meaning of divine and worldly development. [...]



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Existe una mística eclesiástica oficial del Oriente y del Occidente, una mística ortodoxa y una mística católica. Y la diferencia entre los caminos tomados en el mundo por el Oriente ortodoxo y el Occidente católico se pueden explicar por aquello que los distingue en el plano de la experiencia mística. Hay una diferencia profunda en el vínculo original respecto de Dios y del Cristo. Para el Occidente católico, el Cristo es objeto, está fuera del alma humana, en calidad de instrumento de la inspiración y objeto de amor y de exaltación. Por eso la experiencia católica arrastra al hombre hacia la altura, hacia Dios. El alma católica es gótica. El frío se une en ella con la pasión. La imagen concreta, evangélica, del Cristo, la Pasión del Cristo están íntimamente próximas al alma católica. El alma católica está apasionadamente enamorada del Cristo; tiembla de amor por Él, recibe sobre su propio cuerpo los estigmas. La mística católica está penetrada de sensualidad, languidece y se desvanece, para ella no existe otro camino que aquél hacia donde la lleva su imaginación sensible. La corriente antropológica llega allí a su tensión más elevada. El alma católica clama: "Jesús, Jesús mío, mi prójimo, mi amado". Se lanza hacia él, pero Dios no penetra en ella: por ello el alma católica tiene frío, como hace frío también en su templo. Dios no desciende ni a éste ni a aquélla. En cambio, el alma, apasionadamente, voluptuosamente, sube en su busca, tiende hacia su objeto y hacia el blanco de su amor. La mística católica es romántica y está llena de romántica languidez. Es una mística hambrienta, que ignora la saciedad; no conoce el matrimonio sino sólo la voluptuosidad. Ahora bien, esta concepción de Dios como objeto, en tanto término de una aspiración, es precisamente la que crea el dinamismo exterior del cato-licismo. La experiencia católica creó una cultura mar-cada fuertemente por ese candente deseo de Dios. La energía católica se esparció por todos los caminos de la historia, y ello fue porque, en lugar de aprehender a Dios en el corazón humano, fue este corazón humano el que se lanzaba hacia Dios y lo buscaba por los cami-nos de una dinámica mundanal. La experiencia católica hizo nacer del hambre espiritual y de la pasión religiosa insatisfecha, la belleza.

Para el Oriente pravoeslavo, el Cristo es un sujeto, es inmanente al alma humana; el alma aprehende al Cristo en el interior de ella misma, en la profundidad del cora-zón. El deseo amoroso del Cristo y su espera son, pues, imposibles en la mística pravoeslava. No tiende a Dios sino que se disuelve en él. El templo ortodoxo, como el alma, es todo lo contrario del gótico: no hay en él ni frío ni pasión. En la ortodoxia, hay una temperatura tibia, hasta hace calor. La imagen evangélica y concreta del Cristo no aparece allí tan próxima. La ortodoxia con-sidera la sensualidad como un "sortilegio" y rechaza la imaginación como una vía quimérica. Ningún ortodoxo grita: "Jesús mío, mi prójimo, mi bien amado". Pero en el templo y en el alma pravoeslavas, el Cristo pe-netra y los caldea. Y no existe allí ninguna pasión lán-guideciente. La ortodoxia no es romántica, sino realista y sobria. La temperancia es el camino místico de la orto-doxia. La ortodoxia está saciada, colmada espiritualmen-te, y su experiencia es un matrimonio y no una relación de amor. Entendido Dios, como sujeto, concebido en la profundidad del corazón humano, la espiritualidad ab-solutamente interior de ese vinculo no crea un dinamis-mo exterior, está vuelta exclusivamente hacia una unión interna. Esta experiencia de la mística ortodoxa no es, pues, acogedora para la cultura, no crea la belleza. Parecería estar muda para el mundo exterior. La energía ortodoxa no se esparcerá, pues, por los caminos históri-cos, no creará en lo externo. Esta diferencia de las sendas tomadas por la experiencia religiosa encierra un secreto profundo, y ambos caminos son auténticamente cris-tianos.

Hay una mística oficial pravoeslava y una mística oficial católica, pero la naturaleza misma de la mística es supraconfesional. La mística se encuentra en un nivel más profundo que las dispersiones y las antinomias ecle-siásticas confesionales. De todas maneras, los distintos tipos de la experiencia mística pueden engendrar tam-bién tipos eclesiásticos diferentes. La profundización de la mística puede renovar la vida de la Iglesia, combatir su necrosis evidente. Las raíces vivientes de la vida eclesiástica están en la mística. El sacerdocio efectivo se queda en la superficie, en la periferia: la Iglesia encar-nada en el plano físico de la historia es siempre peri-férica. Y los místicos tienen no sólo que salir de esta región periférica para revivificar la vida religiosa sino para explorar todo lo que implica la mística y que quizá tenga que ser rechazado. Porque existe una experiencia mística que tiende a retornar hacia la nada y el reposo inicial, al seno de la divinidad, que renuncia al movi-miento, a la dinámica creadora, es decir, a la significa-ción misma del desarrollo divino y mundanal. Es que, hasta el presente, la mística había nacido al azar de los individualismos particulares, había permanecido secreta, clandestina. En la actualidad han llegado los tiempos de una mística universal, objetiva y plenamente reve-lada. La revelación de la mística es característica de nuestra época, y la época implica la necesidad de reco-nocer qué mística puede ser dirigida hacia un devenir creador.

from the book The Meaning of the Creative Act

Aleksey F. Losev on Palamite disputes

"Essays on Ancient Symbolism and Mythology" is a lengthy book consisting of more than 900 pages. It ends with a chapter dedicated to the discussion of theological issues, including the criticism of Barlaam's point of view and the praise of the teaching of St. Gregory Palamas. The Russian philosopher stresses several important points concerning the fundamental differences between the Byzantine theologians. The first of all is Platonism. According to Losev, Barlaam, who studied the works of Aristotle in the West (and in Latin translations that were made under the influence of Neo-Platonism), inherited the principles of Western tradition and sought to combine Christianity with Platonic philosophy. For Losev, such strategy is absolutely unacceptable because: "Platonism in its theory of intelligent ascent does not concern matters of intimate confession, repentance, and of a struggle, i.e., the struggle with sinful thoughts." (Losev, 1993, p.871). The abstract mode of thought prevailed into the philosophical practice of ancient thinkers; there was no fire of the passions and inherent contradictions in one's personality. "Hesychasm recognizes the possibility of ascent", - Losev says, - "only under these conditions (confession and repentance till to the innermost intimacy and depth etc.), for Plato and Plotinus this is not required" (Losev, 1993, p. 871). The philosophical doctrine of Platonism, according to Losev, asserts "a gaze which sees only the body in being, and actually does not feel the fullness of internal life and living participation in the life and fate of personality" (Losev, 1993, p. 870). The Platonic abstract concept of body doesn't allow us to understand the integrity of human personality. Losev proposes a paradoxical formula: "Platonism is a-physiological, because it is corporeal; mystical Orthodoxy is cordial, because it is personal" (Losev, 1993, p. 871). In this sense, only one idea is absent in the philosophy of Plato — the idea of Salvation.

The second point of disagreement between followers of Barlaam and Palamas is that Barlaam visited Renaissance Italy and incorporated the ideas of Western thinkers into his theory. He rejected the practice of mental prayer because he did not believe in any real possibility of communication with God. The Russian philosopher reminds that in Barlaam's understanding "the God as an independent being and essence remained per se as an absolute unknown, and Energies, because of their intelligibility had to be completely separated from God, and had to be considered as created" (Losev, 1993, p. 872). On the one hand it was agnosticism in relation to God; on the other, it was a real dualism in the way that we are to understand Divine Energy. In Losev's opinion, this kind of interpretation was an ill-fated perspective arising out of the development of Western metaphysics. In this regard, the Russian scholar notes that "under the amplification of modem Rationalism, the Dualism of Barlaamism is turned into a Cartesianism and Occasionalism; under the amplification of Subjectivity is turned into a Kantianism; under the condition of weakening of the sense of Transcendence is turned into a Positivism, and so on" (Losev, 1993, p. 873). From this point of view, the confrontation between Palamism and Barlaamism can be seen as developing in opposite directions relative to the development of European culture. In Losev's words: "In Palamism, i.e., in strict Byzantinism, the God is an absolutely unfathomable abyss, who symbolically manifested Himself in certain energy and a name; in Barlaamism, i.e., in the Renaissance philosophy of the West, the God is essentially an abstract concept: in fact there is no God; there are only godless creatures" (Losev, 1993, p. 874).

It should be stressed that Losev discusses other dogmatic and ecclesiastical issues and religious differences among two directions in Christianity. In his interpretation, Catholicism, based on Aristotelian philosophy, combined idealism and corporeality, and thus, is subordinated to the creation that is characteristically reflected in the sculptures of Christ within the Medieval Gothic churches. Within the Orthodox tradition the transformation of the world came by music, eloquence and fine arts, and its attributes are the ringing of church bells and the prayerful contemplation with the use of icons. Furthermore, Losev could not accept the peculiar erotomania of the Medieval Catholic nuns' mystical visions. He believed that these revelations were initiated by sinful temptations; in this regard, he paid attention to the "sacred silence" of the Orthodox mysticism of Hesychasm.

In general, the Russian philosopher emphasised the difference between the ontologism of the East and the psychologism of the West that was shaped and determined by the writings of St. Augustine. If (according to Losev) in the Western ascetic Revelation there is a search for the path to truth with different inner feelings and personal attitudes, for the Orthodox monk it is always a concrete fact and a with certainty adoption of truth. Thus, it is very important that in the conditions of persecution by the Soviet state Losev turned to Palamism, to the Orthodox concept of Divine Energy, while his starting point was the syncretism of Russian religious philosophy and Solovyev's conception of Pan-unity; and he had done this before the publication of the pro-Palamism famous works of Russian theologians in emigration. "Ascetic and Theological Teaching of St. Gregory Palamas" of Hieromonk Vasiliy (Krivoshein) was published in 1936 and "The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church" by Vladimir Lossky appeared in 1944. Losev finished his studies of Palamite disputes very simply: he published the Acts of Constantinople Council (1351) against Barlaam and Akindynos in his own Russian translation.



Triune God: Incomprehensible But Knowable-The Philosophical and Theological Significance of St Gregory Palamas for Contemporary Philosophy and Theology -  Constantinos Athanasopoulos